Tuesday, February 2, 2021

Abelmoschus manihot - Aibika, Gedi, Bele


      PLANT PROFILE

   Abelmoschus manihot is a perennial shrub from Hibiscus tribe of Malvaceae family. It probably originates from tropical and subtropical areas of southern and eastern parts of China, and from there it was spread to north of India and Southeast Asia. And nowadays it is cultivated and often also grows wild in the South Asia region from India and Sri Lanka, through Myanmar, Thajland, Indonesia, the Philippines to Melanesia, Polynesia and northern Australia. It was also introduced in some regions of Africa and South America.
   It is commonly cultivated as a leafy vegetable, but often also for its medicinal use and sometimes as an ornamental plant, as its big yellow flowers has a lot of charm. It is highly polymorphic species, as its leaves form vary from slightly to deeply cutted palmate or can even have a thin spearhead-like shape. And even on one plant there might be signifficant differences in shape of the leaves. A huge number of differently looking cultivars of Abelmoschus manihot, is mainly due to the fact that this species domesticated plants easily get crosspolinated by wild forms of A. manihot, as well as with other species from genus Abelmoschus. To which among few other belongs Abelmoschus esculentus and Abelmoschus caillei species, which seedpods called Okra are popular vegetable in many regions of the world.
   Abelmoschus manihot popularity is much lesser, as it is little known outside of S-E Asia and Oceania. And even there it stays unknown or little known in many parts of the regions. But in some communities of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji, it is one of the most commonly used leafy vegetables. Grown in private vegetable gardens or gathered from wild, but sometimes also cultivated on plantations, and often sold on local markets, in form of bundles of whole stems with leaves. Plantators in Fiji even export fresh A. manihot leaves to Canada and frozen to New Zealand, Australia and USA, where it is much appreciated mostly by migrants from Pacific islands, longing for their traditional food ingredients.

   Although medicinal properties of Abelmoschus manihot are lesser known than its highly nutritional value. In many communities it it is highly esteemed as a medicinal herb, and its leaves are consumed as a remedy for many diseases, from stomach problems, urinary ailments to fever, headache and tumors. In China the flowers of Abelmoschus manihot has been used for centuries to treat even most serious kidneys problems. It was described in two oldest books of classical Chinese medicine, namely Jia You Ben Cao (mid-11th century) and Ben Cao Gang Mu (1578), and officially listed in 2015 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. 
 
   Abelmoschus manihot was also used in China for centuries as an ingredient in paper making. Nowadays the plant's musilage is still used in Japan in production of special paper called Washi, and in Korea traditional paper called Hanji.


   Here are some of the common names used for this plant : Aibika, Aigiri, Gogae, Kabul (Papua New Guinea), Gedi, Degi, Sarolo (Indonesia), Jungli Bhindi (Hindi), Raan Bhendi (Marathi), Usipak (Assamese), Kantalo Bhende (Gujarati), Phuttu Bhaji (Chhattisgarhi), Sweet Hibiscus, Edible Hibiscus, Manihot Mallow, Sunset Hibiscus, Yellow Hibiscus, Lettuce Tree, Queensland Greens (English), Pele (Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Cook Islands), Bele, Vauvau, Momoke (Fiji), Nuk, Barmai, Kwere (Vanuatu), Slippery Cabbage, Island Cabbage, Pacific Cabbage, Nambelle, Neka, Lema, Gole (Solomon Islands), Te Nambere (Kiribati), Naonit (New Caledonia), Lagikuway, Barakue, Glikway (the Philippines), Paw Fai (Thailand), Bonde, Koto (Sierra Leone), Gbamafetri (Ghana), Tororo-aoi, Kusadamo (Japanese), Dakpul (Korean), Somaradza (Tibetan) ; Chinese names: flowers - Huang Shu Kui Hua, seeds - Huang Shu Kui Zi, leaves - Huang Shu Kui Ye, stem or stem bark - Huang Shu Kui Jing, roots - Huang Shu Kui Gen. And you will find impressive extended list of A. manihot verncular names here

   Abelmoschus manihot in the past was also known under its botanical synonyms like : Hibiscus manihot, Hibiscus palmatus, Bamia manihot, Bamia magnifica and Erebennus manihot, to name just a few.
   And some botanists recognise varieties of this plant like : dissecta, megaspermus, platidactylis, timorensis, pungens, genuinus, or subspecies : caillei, tetraphyllus. But other says that Abelmoschus caillei is probably hybrid of Abelmoschus manihot and Abelmoschus esculentus, or endemic African species.
   And in my and many other scientists opinion Abelmoschus tetraphyllus is a seperate species, and the line between it and A. manihot, should be that all the disputed manihot-like specimens with any kinds of micro-hairs should be classified as tetraphyllus, while only those with glabrous leaves and stems should be recognised as a real A. manihot. That means consider A. manihot as a domisticated form of wild, hairy A. tetraphyllus, that evolved over centuries of selective cultivation of specimens with non-hairy and more juicy leaves, in order to acheive better vegetable type.
   But at the present many if not the most of authors are stating that Abelmoschus manihot leaves and stems are covered with short hispid or prickly hairs.


        CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING

   Abelmoschus manihot is a perrenial shrub, that when young is more of a robust herbaceus plant nature, as only its old stems become fully woody, while young one are quite soft and succulent. It has erect stems, and can reach height of up to 5m, and width of around 3m. In its wild state it can be found mostly in valleys and wet grasslands but also in wastelands and humid rocky hillsides. And it is commonly planted in vegetable gardens in pacific islands villages. It often grows as just an annual plant either due to climate conditions, like extreeme seasonal draughts or cold winters or because of cultivation manner. In temperate climates with mild frosts A. manihot dies back to the ground but can grow back from the underground parts.
   Aibika prefers humid tropical climate, sandy loam and clay loam soil with fair amount of compost, pH between 5 and 7, and sunny position. And in those conditions it can have rapid growth of one meter per month in young plants. The growth of new stems and leaves, its number and size is lesser near and during flowering period, and also decline with plant's age. And for that reason A. manihot is cultivated mainly as an annual plant, as the old plants are removed and replaced with young ones, which are more leaf productive. Its propagation is quick and easy, as its woody and half-woody cuttings are growing roots very fast.
    It can be also grown from the seeds, but the seedlings grow initially much slower than young plants from cuttings. Cuttings cultivation method also accertain you that your young plants will have all the characteristics of the mother plant. As cultivars of Abelmoschus manihot easily crosspolinate with wild forms of A. manihot, as well as with other species of Abelmoschus genus. This hybridisation and common occurance of mutations cause huge variation in morphology of this species. Its leaves shape can be anything from slightly to deeply cutted palmate, and also cordate or spear-like, while its size can be from a fist size to size of a big plate. 
   The leaves color can be from light to dark green or reddish, young stems and leaf petioles are often red or purplish. The leaves look can be even significantly different within the one plant, as it is often changing with weather conditions or growth stage, it is usually smaller in size in older plants and during the flowering period. The flowering of Abelmoschus manihot generally occurs during dry, summer months, but of course vary due to region, for example in China it is during August to October, in Fiji June to November, while in the Philippines it is December to March. The flowers are usually yellow with dark purple centre, but it can also be white with purple center.
   This plant is said to grow best in lowlands at altitudes to 800 m, but I have grew mine in the Philippines at elevation of 1400 m with good results, and it is noted to be cultivated even at heights of 2000 m. There is a huge number of cultivars of Abelmoschus manihot and some might be better adapted to particular conditions than other, for example : narrow-leaved Aibika varieties may be more drought tolerant than round-leaved forms. 
   A. manihot does not require much maintenance and it is usually cultivated in a mixed-cropping system. It is commonly intercropped with low growing vegetables, root crops and banana. It is highly salt tolernt plant, although extensive salinity is slowing its growth. Its growth can be also slowed by deficiency of water or waterlogging in soil. But the plant can withstand seasonal droughts, and is said to tolerate alkalinity and micronutrients deficiencies. 
   With enough watering A. manihot can produce continous abundance of its juicy leaves all year round. The cuttings start to grow shoots after about two weeks and the first harvest is taken usually after 3 months. Since then it can be harvested weekly (stems tops) or even daily (separate leaves) for year or two, before the plants start to be less leaf productive. Seperate leaves, tender shoots or whole longer stems tops with leaves can be harvested. But in case of harvesting only the leaves, sporadic prunning have to be done to curb the height of the bush and encourage better branching, which cause better leaf production.
   Unfortunatelly humans are not the only animals that like tasty, nutritious leaves of Aibika, pests like grasshoppers, caterpillars and aphids, also loves it. The other threats are : Aibika Jassid (Amrasca devastans), Shot-hole Beetle (Nisotra basselae), Green Coconut Bug (Amblypelta cocophaga), Spherical Mealybug (Nipaecoccus viridis), Red Cotton Bug (Dysdercus cingulatus), Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae), Oribius Weevils (Oribius species) and White Fly (Hemiptera species). The plants can be also damaged by Black Shank (Phytophthora nicotianae), Myrothecium roridum and other types of fungal diseases, and viruses like Hibiscus Chlorotic Ringspot Virus (HCRSV). You can find more details about Abelmoschus manihot's pests and diseases and its prevention here.

   Aibika leaves wilt easily, so for longer storage it is better to harvest leaves with the whole stem tops, and seperate the leaves from those stems just before the use. Seperate succulent shoot tips with very young, underdeveloped leaves also storage well. The mature leaves separately are best to be stored in plastic ventilated bags or containers in cool temperatures, it can be also wrapped in bababa leaves and occasionally sprinkled with water for better freshness. The whole stems can be held in buckets or other containers with water, so that the buttoms of the stems would be immersed in water.
 
   
       CULINARY USES

   Abelmoschus manihot leaves are one of the most important leafy vegetables for many communities in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Melanesia, where many people consumes it daily. The leaves has soft texture and are juicy, mucilaginous and mild in taste. Which makes it a universal vegetable that combines well with any dish, and is great for salads and sandwiches. The very young immature leaves and stems tips are quite crispy, while older leaves can be a bit tougher and contain more mucilage. It is eaten raw, boiled in water or coconut milk, steamed, fried in vegetable oil or roasted on stone ovens. 
   In Fiji, Vanuatu and Tonga, Aibika leaves are much loved served like spinach. It is usually boiled for not longer than five minutes, and served hot with butter and lemon juice or coconut cream. 
   In Indonesia the leaves are essential ingredient for cooking porridge as a special gourmet food among the North Sulawesi cuisine, because the mucilage it contain enables the porridge to have a special viscosity. It is also commonly added to thicken soups and stews.
   Aibika leaves and tops are great for making deep-fried batter snacks, like Indian Pakora.

    The tender young leaves are low in fiber and rich in vitamins, which makes it excellent first food for infants when mashed together with root vegetables. While old leaves are good source of dietary fiber, which makes it usefull help in cases of chronic constipation.

    Nutritious value of Abelmoschus manihot is much better than those of many popular leafy vegetables. For boiling Aibika a relatively small volume of water should be used, as some minerals, especially potassium, magnesium, zinc, iron and calcium are lost in the water. Therefore it is good to consume that water as a soup. Serving Aibika leaves with coconut cream, is said to increase the uptake of beta-carotene and conversion to vitamin A.

   Abelmoschus manihot leaves contain high level of protein (18 - 24% of dry weight) and polysaccharides. It contains the essential amino acids : isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine and histidine. And is rich in vitamins A and C, riboflavin, thiamine, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, potassium, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur and carotenoids ; more details, and here.
 
   Aibika flower buds can be also eaten raw or cooked, and the fresh flowers was commonly eaten as a vegetable in old days in China. But unlike Okra, Aibika fruits are usually not smooth but covered with short bristle hairs, and therefore it is rarely eaten (but the anoying hairs can be scrabed off and Aibika fruits can be boiled just like Okra).

   Despite that it is a heighly nutritious vegetable, Aibika should not be consumed by pregnant women, as some native tribes in Asia use it to induce abortion.
  


         MEDICINAL USES

   Abelmoschus manihot was used as a medicinal plant for centuries. The oldest written record of its use as a healing herb comes from Zhou Hou bei Ji Fang ( A Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies ), written in 340 by Chinese physician Ge Hong. And it was later described in Chinese Medicine classics like Jia You Ben Cao (mid-11th century) and Ben Cao Gang Mu (1578). Chinese high regard for this plant's medicinal value, esspecially of its flowers, can be well seen, as they have listed it in 2015 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Medicinal use of A. manihot has also long tradition and strong importance in some regions of India, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Vanuatu and in other countries in South-east Asia, Melanesia and Polynesia (There are also reports of use of A. manihot as a medicine in some countries of Central and West Africa, although it might actually relate to use of Abelmoschus caillei). But while in China the plant's extracts are used also in clinical treatment by orthodox medicine doctors, in other countries this herb is only utilized by folk healers and traditional medicine practitioners. 
   Although, in the last decade interest of academics in medicinal potential of Abelmoschus manihot has risen, which resulted in many reaserches on the plants chemical constituents and its pharmacological actions (with the leaders in number of researches being China, India and Indonesia). And that has added to better understanding of Aibika's healing powers. 
   Traditionally all parts of this plant are used as a medicinal herb. Different parts of Aibika are commonly used as a mutual substitutes in treatment of many diseases, especially the leaves and flowers. But despite possesing many of the same medicinal properties, different parts of A. manihot might have different efectiveness in therapy of particular ailments. 
   Mucilage extracted from Aibika can be used in the same way like Okra mucilage, as a plasma replacement or blood volume expander. 


         LEAVES

   The leaves of Abelmoschus manihot can be called a medicinal vegetable or functional food, as it is mainly not being dried and procesed, but simply eaten raw or slightly cooked (without salt) for its medicinal actions, which is : anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral hepatoprotective, renoprotective, anti-diabetic, lubricant, anticonvulsant, chelating, antipyretic, analgesic, antidepresant and emmenagogue, it also posess wound-healing, immunity-enhancing, myocardial and cerebral ischemic-reperfusion injury protecting properties.

   In terms of Traditional Chinese Medicine A. manihot leaves are described as sweet and cold in nature, soothing, eliminating heat and detoxifying, setting a fracture and promoting tissue regeneration.
 

    Abelmoschus manihot leaves are consumed as a treatment for :

- Digestive system ailments. It is used in cases of stomach aches, upset stomach, constipation, diarhoea, dysentery, hematemesis, acid reflux, it can also prevent nausea and vomiting.

- Inflammations. Aibika leaves are traditionally taken as a remedy for different kinds of inflammations, from sore throat, lungs or stomach inflammation to edema and rheumatism. Its extracts exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activities on paw edema in rats. 

- Diabetes. It consumption is traditionally considered to be helpful in cases of diabetes. The study on mice has shown that A. manihot leaf extracts improve autophagy activity and mitochondrial function to attenuate the Diabetic Nephropathy progression.

- Hypercholesterolemia. In Indonesia Aibika leaves are boiled without salt, and both the leaves and decoction water are taken as a traditional medicine for high cholesterol. The leaf extracts has shown reduction of lipid accumulation in mice on high-fat diet.   

- Urinary tract disorders. The leaves are taken to cure many types of urinary tract illnesses, like infections, inflammations, diabetic nephropathy and strangury (painful frequent urination). It was proved to improve glomerular filtration function, reduce proteinuria and mesangium hyperplasia, and that can reduce kidney tissue damage. 
 
Ulcers. Abelmoschus manihot leaves are widely used to treat different kinds of ulcers, i.a. oral and stomach ulcers. Its efectiveness against ulcers is mainly due to soothing, protective properties of mucilage, of which the leaves are a rich source.

Osteoporosis and fractures. The leaves are traditionally used for fractures to stimulate bone repair and to prevent osteoporosis. Studies showed that consumption of high dose of the leaves provided bone-sparing effect.

- Pain. The leaves are also consumed to bring relief in headaches, kidney and ulcers pain, and are considered to be analgesic.

- To increase lactation. A. manihot is commonly eaten as leafy vegetable to stimulate milk production, lactating mothers are encouraged to drink plenty of unsalted Aibika soup or tea from the leaves.

- Childbirth and gynecological issues. The leaf infusion is used to induce and ease childbirth and to stimulate menstruation, shorten menstruation period, stop metrorrhagia or metrostaxis. The slimy liquid made from leaves is also used to control the fertility or to induce abortion, and should be avoided by pregnant women.  

   The leaves are also traditionally consumed to treat : colds, fever, chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis, edema, burns, hemorrhoids, anemia and impotence.
 
 
   Externally fresh mashed leaves of Abelmoschus manihot or the leaves decoction is applied as a treatment on : skin ulcers, burns, skin rashes, wounds, fractures, insect bites, cellulitis, leucoderma, hemorrhoids and carbuncle . The leaves juice is applied on sprains as an analgesic agent.

 
   Abelmoschus manihot leaves are rich in mucilage consisting of polysaccharides and protein. It also contains : flavonoids (quercetin-3-o-robinobioside, isoquercetin, gossypetin-8-o-glucuronide, myricetin), flavonoid glycosides (hyperine), steroids (stigmast-4-en-3-one), steroidal saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, amino acids, fatty acids (mainly linolenic acid and palmitic acid), nucleotides, phytol, dioctyl phthalate, tocopherol, Urs-12-en-28-ol,   (2E,4E)-2,4-heptadecadienoic acid, methyl isopalmitate,  25-hydroxycholesterol,  DL-α-tocopherol acetate,   3,5-di-tertbutylbenzaldehyde,  fludrocortisone acetate and beta-amyrone.


        FLOWERS

   Abelmoschus manihot flowers, and more precisely the flowers petals also called corolla, with stamens and style, are mainly used dried. It is used to prepare infusions or decoctions (standard dose in TCM 5-15g), or ingested in form of powder (3-6g). But the fresh Aibika flowers can be also eaten raw, and the whole dried one can be eaten after soaking. 
   Its actions are described as : antioxidant, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, diuretic, antiviral, antibacterial, anticoagulant, analgesic, antitumor, neuroprotective, antidepresant and wound healing.

   In terms of Traditional Chinese Medicine Aibika flowers are described as sweet, pungent, cooling and detoxifying, it is said to quicken blood circulation, arresting bleeding, reduce swelling and remove dampness and heat from the body.
     Aibika flowers are taken orally as a treatment for :

- Kidney diseases. The flower of Abelmoschus manihot has a very long tradition of use as a herb for kidney diseases in China. It is used to treat chronic kidney diseases, such as Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN), membranous nephropathy, diabetic nephropathy and pyelonephritis, and to protect kidney functions. A. manihot flowers were included as a medicine for kidney diseases in the Compendium of Materia Medica more than four centuries ago, and was listed in the 2015 edition the Chinese Pharmacopoeia for treating many diseases, such as chronic glomerulonephritis and diabetic nephropathy, in clinical practice. 
   A pharmacological study found that the effects of A. manihot flowers might be associated with the improvement of immune reactions inhibition of inflammation, protection of renal tubular epithelial cells, amelioration of kidney fibrosis, proteinuria and haematuria, and anticoagulant effects, among others. The results showed that A. manihot flower extract can significantly reduce urinary protein in patients with primary kidney disease (CKD stages 1-2), threw the protection of podocytes, and its effect is better than that of losartan potassium.
   Pharmaceutical preparation of the extract of A. manihot flower, called Huang Kui Capsule, has been approved by the Chinese State Food and Drug Administration (SFDA) in 1999, as a class III drug for treating chronic glomerulonephritis, membranous nephropathy, diabetic nephropathy and other inflammatory diseases. There have been no reports of severe adverse events, and the most common adverse event is mild to moderate gastrointestinal discomfort. The HKC capsule contain: Flos Abelmoschus manihot dry extract (powder) 80%, magnesium stearate 3%, and calcium hydrogen phosphate 17%. The medicinal parts of the flower (corolla with stamens and style) undergoes alcohol extraction into ambrette fluid extract, and then is vacuum dried and crushed into a dry extract powder. Pharmaceutical preparation does not involve boiling.

Liver diseases. In China, the decoction of the A. manihot flowers is traditionally used for the treatment of jaundice and various types of chronic and acute hepatitis. Its hepatoprotective actions was confirmed in scientific tests. Hyperoside, a compound isolated from the flowers, has shown significant activity against Hepatitis B virus. 
 
- Women complaints. In Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands, the flowers are commonly used to impede menorrhagia and stop metrorrhagia or metrostaxis, but also to induce abortions, ease childbirth, help with retention of afterbirth, and to stimulate lactation. 

- Bronchitis. In India, a glass of juice from A. manihot flowers is drunk regularly to get relieve from chronic bronchitis.

Infections. Aibika flowers are traditionally taken as a remedy for different kinds of bacterial and viral infections, like stomach infections, pyogenic infections, infected wounds, carbuncle, mumps and gonorrhoea.

- Hypercholesterolemia. In Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands, Aibika flowers are used as a staple folk medicine to lower high cholesterol level.

Toothache. For relief of toothache a glass of Aibika flowers juice is drunk regularly.  
 
- Hemorrhages. In TCM, the flowers are used as a remedy for non-traumatic hemorrhages, hematemesis (vomiting of blood), metrorrhagia (intense intermenstrual bleeding) and metrostaxis (long lasting intermenstrual blood spotting).

   Abelmoschus manihot flowers are also taken orally as treatment for : oral and stomach ulcers, reumatoid arthritis, inflammatory diseases, edema, strangury and to restore tissue damaged by ulcers and burns, and prevent osteoporosis.
 

   Externally, Aibika flowers powder is used with added oil, or the fresh smashed petals are applied topically to treat : skin ulcers, burns and scalds, cellulitis and other types of skin inflammations, and carbuncle.

 
   The flower contains : flavonoids (myricetin, isoquercetin, quercetin, gossypetin, anthocyanins), flavonoid glycosides (hyperoside, rutin, hibifolin, tiliroside, cannabiscitrin, floramanoside F, myricetin and quercetin derivatives), sterols (beta-sitosterol and its derivatives), glycerolmonopalmitate, 2,4‐dihydroxy benzoic acid, guanosine, adenosine, uracil, maleic acid, tannic acid, heptatriacontanoic acid, 1‐triacontanol, tetracosane, protocatechuic acid, hexadecane, octadecane and nicotinamide.
   Accoring to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, hyperoside is used as a standard for quality control of Abelmoschus manihot and its compound preparations, and its flowers should contain not less than 0.5% of hyperoside.  
 
 
          SEEDS

   In Tibetan Traditional Medicine, the seeds are the main part of Abelmoschus manihot used medicinaly. It is described as warming, astringent, bitter and slightly acrid. And used to treat leucorrhea, skin disorders, diabetes and blood disorders, to control sweating, and to act as aphrodisiac. Also in combination with Frankincense and Foetid Cassia to treat lymph disorders. Those information comes from the book '' Essentials of Tibetan Traditional Medicine '' by Thinley Gyatso and Chris Hakim. And contradict info form Medicinal Plant Database website of Hong Kong Baptist University, which states that the seeds are sweet and cold in nature. 
  The authors of this website wrote also that it excrete water, stimulate menstrual discharging, reduce swelling and detoxify. And is taken orally in form of decoction (10-15g of grinded seeds) or powder (2-5g) for treatment of stranguria, edema, constipation, infrequent lactation, carbuncle, epistaxis (nosebleeds) and injury from falls.

   Aibika seeds are also said to boost up the stamina and immune system, regulate the proper functioning of the stomach and strenghtening it. And that it can be used for urinary stones
  
  The seeds contain saturated acids and liquid acids, such as linoleic and oleic acids. It is also rich in protein and lysine.

 
       BARK

   The bark of Abelmoschus manichot is traditionally used as an anthelmintic, febrifuge, emmenagogue, diuretic, alexeteric and detoxifying. The bark decoctions are taken orally to treat strangury and urinary complaints, constipation and fever.

   Fresh bark of Aibika is mashed with a bit of water added into a paste, which is applied on open wounds and cuts, with new paste being put every 2-3 days. It works as an antiseptic and is also used on open sores. The bark juice helps to lessen the swelling and muscle sores.

 A. manihot stem bark contain abundance of phenolic constituents.


       STEMS

   Woody stems of Abelmoschus manihot are used in Traditional Chinese Medicine as a sweet and cold herb, to remove heat and detoxify, reduce defecation or urination. The stems extract has shown analgesic and wound healing activity.
   Aibika stems decoction is taken orally to treat : consistent pyrexia, constipation, difficulty in urination, scalding injuries, furunculosis and swelling.
   The ointments made with the woody stem extracts showed significant wound healing activity.

   The woody stems of Aibika contain : stigmasterol, sitosterol, isoquercitrin, quercetin, hyperoside, hibifolin and isohamnetin. Some of those constituents are known for anticonsulvant and anti depressant-like activity.  


        ROOTS

   The roots of Aibika are considered to be sweet, bitter and cold in nature. In Traditional Chinese Medicine roots decoction (9-15g) is used to excrete water, stimulate menstrual discharging and detoxify. It is taken to treat stranguria, urinary tract infections, edema, constipation, cancer, diabetes, injury from falls, infrequent lactation, carbuncle, ear canal inflammation and parotitis.
   Externally the fresh smashed roots are applied or decoctions are used for topical washing of boils, sores, sprains, inflammations and leucoderma.
   In Nepal the root juice is warmed and applied to sprains or drunk to relieve muscle pain due to sprains. 

   Abelmoachus manihot roots has been reported to posses analgesic and larvicidal activity. It contain muscilage, starch, tannins, flavonoids and glycosides, araban, lactose and rhamnosan.

 
       CONTRAINDICATIONS

  All parts of Abelmoschus manihot are safe for human consumption, according to both traditional knowledge records and modern toxicological tests. But none of Aibika parts should be given to women during pregnancy, as there are many records of its ethnobotanical uses as an abortifacient agent.







                   















 
    Sources

'' Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines - Molecular Structures, Pharmacological Activities, Natural Sources and Applications: Vol. 5: Isolated Compounds T—Z, References, TCM Plants and Congeners '' - Jiaju Zhou, Guirong Xie, Xinjian Yan, Springer Science & Business Media 2011

HEPATOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITY OF Abelmoschus manihot L. Medik LEAVES EXTRACT AND ITS NANOPARTICLE AGAINST CARBON TETRACHLORIDE INDUCED HEPATOTOXICITY IN RATS - Yos Banne

ANTIOXIDANT AND HEPATOPROTECTIVE ACTIVITY OF ABELMOSCHUS MANIHOT L. MEDIK LEAF FRACTION AGAINST CCL4-INDUCED LIVER DAMAGE IN RATS - YOS BANNE1, TATY SETYAWATI PONIDJAN, JOVIE MIEN DUMANAUW

Ethanobotanical Uses and Phytochemical analysis of Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik - Arangale KB, Dhanwate AK, Shinde RN, Aher UB

Promoting nutritious leafy vegetables in the Pacific and Northern Australia - G.H. Lyons, R.G. Goebel, P. Tikai, K-J Stanley, M Taylor




































 











Saturday, August 29, 2020

Chloranthus erectus - Yasinha, Yu Zi Lan, Harostulang, Barau Barau, Kraduk Kai

Polska wersja

         PLANT PROFILE

   Chloranthus erectus is a shrub that grows in shade of forests in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate climate zones, from Eastern Himalayan, through Indochina to South East Asian region as far as New Guinea. It is important as a medicinal plant for many local indigenous cultures, that has been using it in traditional healing for many generations. And just like all the other species of genus Chloranthes (that according to different sources comprise of 10 - 17 species) it is a plant that has a strong reputation as a powerful herbal cure among herbal practitioners of the region. But remains one of lesser known herbs in its own lands, and only few people ever heard about it outside of the region. 
    Chloranthus erectus is also often known as under the name Chloranthus elatior, and it is often mistaken with Chloranthus spicatus, or simply treated as a one species. Chloranthus spicatus is very closely related and almost identical with C. erectus, but it is said to grow generally smaller (1,5m), have smaller leaves (5-11× 2,5-5,5cm) than C. erectus (even up to 3m height, leaves 10-20 × 4-8 cm), and produce yellow flowers while C. erectus flowers are mainly white.
   Beside for being used for medicinal purposes, infusions from C. erectus and C. spicatus are also much appreciated as a stimulating beverage tea with wonderful aroma. And as such it was very popular, and those plants being cultivated on plantations and traded on markets as a tea in Indonesia. Until in 19th Century the Dutch colonial government prohibited the cultivation of Chloranthus, in order to promote the planting and production of the Tea (Camellia sinensis), for which then there was a huge demand on European markets. Since then Chloranthus has lost its popularity as a beverage, and nowadays it is difficult to buy it on the market. Only small quantities of dried material are sometimes sold together with other ingredients for traditional Indonesian medicine. And it is sometimes grown in Chinese-owned Camellia tea plantations, as its leaves and flowers are added to C. sinensis leaves during drying to impart Chloranthus specific flavor and taste to the Tea.

     Chloranthus erectus has many local names, here are just some of it : Kbak Damrei (Cambodia) Dikut Dikut, Keras Tulang, Langut Langut (Sarawak, Malaysia), Rami Hutan, Sambau Paya, Sigueh Putih (Pen. Malaysia), Totol (Kuyongon - Sabah, MY), Keras Tulang, Uyuh-uyuhan (Indonesia), Harostulang (Sumatra, ID), Uya Uyahan (Java, ID), Karastulang (Sundanese,West Java, ID), Tuur Munding (West Java, ID), Lagrimas, Sunulampong (Philippines), Barau Barau (Luzon, PH), Tul-an Hinbad (Samar, PH), Tunggao (Tagbanua, PH), Manalak (Mindanao, PH), Hom Kai, Gra Duuk Gai (north Thailand), Kraduk Kai (central Thailand), Yu Zi Lan, Jie Jie Cha, Jiu Hie Feng, Shi Feng Jie (China), Yasinha, Bea-ken-kur, Lakang-taklang (India), Thanat-kha, Yuzara (Myanmar).
    Chloranthus erectus is the most used botanical name for this plant, but Chloranthus elatior is also used very frequently, and Chloranthus officinalis name is still sometimes used nowadays. Other synonyms for this plant are Chloranthus inconspicuus, Chloranthus salicifolius, Chloranthus sumatranus and Cryphaea erecta, but these botanical names went out of use years ago.


         CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING

    Chloranthus erectus is evergreen shrub that usually grow shorter but wider than 1m, but it can reach even 3m in height and be more than 2m wide. It belongs to small family of Chloranthaceae, together with only three other genera Sarcandra, Hedyosmus and Ascarina, all of which has unique forms of flowers without petals, and are used in traditional medicine. Chloranthus erectus flowers are basically small white bumps (1-2mm) settled on few spikes, when young it can look more green-white or yellowish, while very similar but smaller plants of Chloranthus spicatus has always bright yellow flowers.
   The fruits of both species are greenish-white when young, usually turning purplish-white with time, to ripe as a small (0,6cm) white balls with green or purplish-brown eye, which is actually a visible, fruit flesh-uncovered seed. It is said to produce flowers between Apr-Jun and fruits between Jul-Sep, but in the Philippines it generally flowers and grow fruits all year round.
     Chloranthus erectus likes tropical and subtropical climate, but can be also find in warm temperate climate regions. It grows in shade of trees, mainly in mountain forests at elevations up to 2500m, often on limestone, but also in moist soils in lowlands. Well established plants can withstand some droughts. If the drought is extreme and long term, the aerial part of the plant can get entirely dead dry, but the roots and stems base often survive. And the new stems will regrow rapidly and vigorously straight after first strong rains.
     C. erectus can be propagated from seeds or threw layering, but it's cuttings put roots easily and grow well, making it fastest way to increase your number of the plants.

     Chloranthus erectus and C. spicatus are a low maintenance plants, that can adapt to different conditions in garden cultivation, and are generally resistant to pests and diseases. It can be easily shaped by cutting. And because of its glossy neat leaves, interesting flowers and nice looking fruits, in Indonesia it is sometimes planted not only for use as a herb, but also for purely ornamental purposes. I didn't found yet any data about how hardy those two species are, so please let me know if you have some idea of how low temperatures it can withstand. I presume that even if the short term frosts around 0'C would freeze it's aerial parts to death, it would still grow back from the rootbase. Yet I wouldn't risk the exposure of C. erectus or C. spicatus to temperatures below 5'C unless unavoidable.
     If planted on a sunny spot, its growth might be slower, and the plants will tend to spread wider instead of growing more upright. Scorching sun might makes its leaves to get silvery-brown blurs, but it usually won't drop like many other plants leaves affected by extremely strong sun. Chloranthus leaves even when strongly depigmented by sun will usually lasts fully alive on branches for months, and its aroma might be few times stronger than that of entirely green leaves from shade.
   C. erectus and C. spicatus are also not problematic as a houseplants. So considered the fact that even in its native lands these herbs are generally hard to get on the market. And that it is almost impossible to find them in herbal shops in other countries outside of the region. Add the fact how wonderful and unique those herbs aroma is. I think it is worth to make a hard search for Chloranthus seeds online or for life plants in professional rare plants nurseries. To get one, to grow, and enjoy the unique flavor of it's freshly picked leaves, whatever country you live in.

    Chloranthus leaves, whole stems tops or roots can be harvested all year round. But depend of periodic weather conditions, the leaves might have significantly different taste and aroma. Like all aromatic herbs it need to be dried with cautious, in shade at not to high temperature, and put in well tight containers straight afterwards. But even with the best practice of drying and storage, Chloranthus leaves will always lose some of it's aroma, and the fresh leaves will always have more potent fragrance and medicinal properties than the dried one. While Chloranthus roots when quickly dried and well stored, can keep it's aroma strong for long time.

   In Indonesia C. erectus is also used as a dye plant, to produce dark blue or black colors.



        CULINARY USES

   All parts of Chloranthus erectus (also C. spicatus) plants can be used to make a tea. It has softly bitter taste, and wonderful, unique aroma that is mildly peppery, slightly sweet and of rather masculine character. It is considered to act as an aphrodisiac, especially on women. For long time Chloranthus tea was a very popular beverage in Indonesia. The plant was commonly grown on plantations and sold dried on markets. Until in 19th Century the Dutch colonial government prohibited the cultivation of Chloranthus, and instead started to promote the planting and production of Tea (Camellia sinensis) for export. Since then Chloranthus tea become less and less popular. 
   Nowadays Chloranthus erectus and C. spicatus has only status of lesser known medicinal herbs in some regions of South-East Asia, for example as an ingredients of Indonesian traditional herbal drinks called Jamu. And consumption of Chloranthus simply as a beverage tea is very uncommon, almost entirely forgotten tradition. Sporadically Chloranthus is also added to Camellia Tea to impart its flavor.
   It is a sad story in my opinion. As for me Chloranthus is one of my best herbal discoveries ever. I love its scent and hope that one day there will be revival of popularity of Chloranthus tea, that it deserves not only because of great, unique aroma but also due to its health benefits. 

   I have found information that the young leaves can be eaten raw as vegetable. And that formerly the leaves of Chloranthus erectus were eaten together with pork as an offering in House Tambaran (ancestral worship house) in the Hagen area of New Guinea. 
   In my experience, even young, not fully developed leaves of C. erectus are to bitter and pungent to be eaten as a vegetable. But either its young and soft or older and tougher leaves, can be finely chopped and used as an extraordinary spice.


 
           MEDICINAL USES

   Chloranthus erectus has a long history of use as a medicinal plant in the lands of its native habitat, from Himalayan to New Guinea. But although it is highly esteemed as a herbal cure by folk healers in many indigenous communities, and some modern herbalists in few Asian countries. Nowadays it is generally lesser known medicinal herb in the region, almost entirely unknown in other countries.
    Only very few scientific research has been made to discover C. erectus chemical constituents and test the plants pharmacological actions. But together with ethnobotanical records of it's traditional applications, we have from it quite clear view on the healing nature of this herb.

    Chloranthus erectus leaves, stems and roots are aromatic, with slightly bitter, peppery taste. Its actions are described as detoxifying, anti-inflammatory, stimulant, febrifuge, sudorific, antibacterial, hemostatic, expectorant, antispasmodic, relaxing muscles and joints. It is also considered to be aphrodisiac, especially for women.
   In Traditional Chinese Medicine terms this herb is said to dredge the meridian passage, and to be of warm and dry nature.


    All parts of C. erectus are usually used fresh (preferred for its stronger potency) or dried in form of infusion or decoction, but tinctures can be also made from it. Decoctions should be made with care, and infusions should be also covered tightly while steep, to prevent evaporation of Chloranthus essential oils, which gives it most of its medicinal values. The preparations are taken orally as a treatment for :

- Fevers. This herb is widely used to treat many kinds of fevers (including malarial) and accompanied complains like body ache and debility. It induce sweating and reduce fever, significantly speeding up recovery time. Beside for being drunk in form of leaves and stems or roots tea, in Myanmar also after boiling the roots are powdered and rubbed on body to treat fever.
   As a result of tests on rats, antipyretic effect of the Chloranthus erectus leaf methanol extract was compared with that of the standard drug paracetamol.

Infectious diseases. Infusions or decoctions from all parts of this plant are used to treat many kinds of infections like cold, flu, malaria, stomach infections and venereal diseases.
  Chloranthus erectus leaf methanol extract exhibited a broad spectrum of growth inhibition activity against both G (−) and G (+) bacterial strains : Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Ralstonia eutropha, Salmonella typhimurium.

- Inflammations. This herb is often taken orally to treat different kinds of inflammations like skin inflammation, lungs inflammation, rheumatism and arthritis. And it is also applied externally, mostly in form of poultice from fresh parts paste, or paste from dried and powdered parts. 
   
- Pregnancy and delivery. In India and Indonesia drink from boiled branches is used to prevent conception. In Myanmar and India decoctions of crushed leaves or roots (sometimes with bark Cinnamomum culilawan added) are used as an antispasmodic during childbirth to make delivery smooth. In the Philippines Chloranthus erectus roots decoction is given to women as postpartum remedy. In West Java, Indonesia Chloranthus heated pounded leafs are orally ingested as postpartum remedy. In Java, an infusion of the powdered Chloranthus root and the bark of Cinnamomum culilawan is used to treat puerperal eclampsia, and in China C. erectus tea is drunk as a remedy for puerperal hemorrhage. This herb is also taken as a remedy for uterine prolapse.

Respiratory problems. This herb is taken as treatment for coughs due to cold or asthma, it helps to get rid of phlegm.

Pain. Chloranthus erectus is widely used to bring relief to many forms of pain, from migraines, body aches, flank pain, axilla pain, joint pains, to pain in chest or stomach.

- Muscle spasms. In Traditional Chinese Medicine this herb is given for epilepsy. It is also used as an antispasmodic during childbirth and to ease asthmatic spasms of lungs.


   Chloranthus erectus infusions or decoctions are also taken orally to treat : renal calculus, localized swelling, bone fractures, contusions, traumatic injury, impairment caused by overstrain, and to improve wound healing, or to stop vomiting.
 
   
   This herb is also often used for treatments of many conditions externally :

- In Indonesia and China paste made from powdered leaves is applied externally to soothe contusion and bone fracture. In India paste is made from Chloranthus leaves mixed with leaves of Curcuma longa and applied on swelling area of fracture bones to reduce pain and swelling, and liniments with Chloranthus are said to be very useful to treat acute injury. In Malaysia crushed leaves are put on cut wound to stop bleeding.

- In the Philippines the leaves are pounded and applied to ulcers and the warmed leaves are applied for sprains.
 
- Young leaf paste or leaf extract or is applied on inflammation.

- Bruised roots used as poultice for boils and carbuncles.

- Khamti tribe of Arunachal Pradesh use leaves paste or leaf extract for elephant foot swelling.  

  
    Many, if not the most of Chloranthus medicinal properties are due to its essential oils content. Air-dried leaves with stems of Chloranthus elatior from Vietnam yields 0.15% (v/w) of essential oil, with main compounds being : bicycloelemene, bicyclogermacene, delta-cadinene, germacrene-D, beta-ocimene, allo-ocimene, beta-pinene, beta-caryophyllene, beta-elemene and spathulenol.
   Chloranthus erectus also contains : sesquiterpenes [eudesmanes (neolitacumone B, multislactone A, chlospicate A, chloranthalic acid, chlorantholides A-F, chloranthones A-D, shizukolidol), guaianes (zedoalactone A and E), aromadendranes], sesquiterpene polymers, disesquiterpenoid (chloramultilide C), diterpenoids [labdanes (elatiorlabdane)] and triterpenoids, secoeudesmanolide (chloranerectuslactone V), chloranthalactone B,  9-hydroxy-heterogorgiolide,  2-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene formaldehyde, ferulic aldehyde, turpentine phenol,  4,5,7-trimethoxyflavonols, flavokawain A,  5-hydroxy-7,4 dimethoxyflavanone, beta-coumaric acid and beta-sitosterol.


 
  Chloranthus spicatus poses very similar chemical profile to C. erectus, which validate their use as a mutual substitutes. Therefore it is important to mention here, that besides of many traditional medicinal claims that was already mentioned above, C. spicatus is also used : to quicken the blood and treat high blood pressure, invigorate health, to treat periarthritis of shoulder and protrusion of lumbar disc, to kill parasitic worms and externally to treat ringworm.

   I didn't found any information about anticancer use of C. erectus or C. spicatus, but both plants are well known to detoxify body, which is very important if not the crucial action in fight with cancer. And their relatives named Cloranthus multistachys, Chloranthus japonicus and Sarcandra glabra (syn. Chloranthus glaber), are used as anticancer herbs not only by folk healers but also physicians in Chinese clinics. As its anticancer effectiveness has been proved by modern scientific tests. For example tablets of S. glabra are clinically used as an adjunctive therapy for leukemia and pancreatic and liver cancer, and can be found in the Pharmacopoeia of PR China.  
  Terpenoid compounds isolated from Chloranthus japonicus exhibited inhibitory activities against HIV virus.
 

    Contraindications

   There are no data about any side effects of consumption of Chloranthus erectus. But I found information that Choranthus spicatus can be poisonous if overdosed, and that Chloranthus serratus should not be used in cases of pregnancy.  
   In research paper titled ''Ethnomedicinal Analysis of Toxic Plants from Five Ethnic Groups in China'', the authors stated that Chloranthus erectus whole plant is a herb with ''low'' level of toxicity. In comparison Gynura procumbens whole plant was also listed under low toxicity, while Gingko biloba seeds and leaves, Polygonum hydropiper whole plant and Cheliodonium majus whole plant, was all described as herbs with medium level of toxicity.
 

          AROMATHERAPY USES

   Chloranthus erectus posses a truly unique smell. Truly, because its scent is not just a unique combination of fragnance notes that we already well know, like eucalyptuses, citruses and pines notes all mixed in the smell of Callistemon. Chloranthus scent is created by rare chemical compounds, many of which can be found only in Chloranthus species and no other plants in the world, and therefore it can't be compared to any other fragrance. You can only describe it as a bit peppery and masculine, yet mildly sweet, gently warming and stimulating aroma. 
   C. erectus essential oil undoubtedly posses a great potential in perfumery and aromatherapy. Probably most of medicinal powers giving this herb properties like pain-killing and antispasmodic, are thanks to its content of volatile chemical compounds. Therefore extracted essential oil can be even more convenient and effective for the treatment of some ailments than Chloranthus teas with its low essential oil content.
   But at the moment no one have produce essential oil from Chloranthus as the plant in not commercially cultivated, and very hard to buy even in form of dried herb. Which is a huge shame.








































































 
   Sources

'' Thai Herbal Medicine: Traditional Recipes for Health and Harmony '' - Nephyr Jacobsen, C. Pierce Salguero, Simon and Schuster 2014

'' The medicinal plants of Myanmar '' - Robert A. DeFilipps, Gary A. Krupnick, Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution 2018

'' Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 16 Stimulants '' - H.A.M. van der Vossen and M. Wessel, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden 2000

'' Medicinal Plants Of The Asia-pacific: Drugs For The Future? '' - Christophe Wiart, World Scientific 2006

'' Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines - Molecular Structures, Pharmacological Activities, Natural Sources and Applications: Vol. 6: Indexes '' - Jiaju Zhou, Guirong Xie, Xinjian Yan, Springer Science & Business Media 2011

Medicinal Plants for Treating Musculoskeletal Disorders among Karen in Thailand - Rapeeporn Kantasrila, Hataichanok Pandith, Henrik Balslev, Prasit Wangpakapattanawong, Prateep Panyadee and Angkhana Inta

Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines - Molecular Structures, Pharmacological Activities, Natural Sources and Applications: Vol. 5: Isolated Compounds T—Z, References, TCM Plants and Congeners - Jiaju Zhou, Guirong Xie, Xinjian Yan, Springer Science & Business Media 2011 

Ethnomedicinal Analysis of Toxic Plants from Five Ethnic Groups in China - Huyin Huai, Qinqin Dong and Aizhong Liu

Ethnomedicinal studies of the Khamti tribe of Arunachal Pradesh - AK Das, Hui Tag

LOCAL USE OF FOREST PRODUCTS IN KUYONGON, SABAH, MALAYSIA - Jacob Andersen, Christina Nilsson, Thomas de Richelieu, Herdis Fridriksdottir, Januarius Gobilick, Ole Mertz and Quentin Gausset

Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese communityin West Java, Indonesia - Katrin Roosita, Clara M. Kusharto, Makiko Sekiyama,Yulian Fachrurozi, Ryutaro Ohtsuka

CROSS-CULTURAL ETHNOBOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF DIVERSITY AND UTILIZATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN KARBI ANGLONG DISTRICT, ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA - Robindra Teron 

Traditional Tai-Khampti medicinal plants to cure fractured bones - Sheelawati Monlai, H. Lalramnghinglova and A. Arunachalam

Taxonomy of ethnomedicinal botanicals and documentation of ethnomedicinal practices traditionally used by three selected ethnolinguistic communities in Mindanao, Philippines - Lagunday, Noel E.; Cabana, Veneracion G

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verd. leaf extract in rats. - Tag H, Namsa ND, Das AK, Kalita P, Mandal SC

Antipyretic and antibacterial activity of Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdcourt leaf extract: A popular folk medicine of Arunachal Pradesh - Hui Tag, Nima D. Namsa, M. Mandal, P. Kalita, A.K. Das, and S.C. Mandal

Terpenoids from Chloranthus elatior - Chang-Li SUN, Huan YAN, Xu-Hong LI, Xue-Fang ZHENG,
and Hai-Yang LIU

Chlorantholides A–F, eudesmane-type sesquiterpene lactones from Chloranthus elatior - Fei Wanga, Dong-Sheng Zhou, Guo-Zhu Wei, Fu-Cai Ren, Ji-Kai Liu

Chloranthones A – D: Minor and Unprecedented Dinor‐Eudesmenes from Chloranthus elatior - Shu‐Ting Liu  Juan Xiong  Yu Tang  Wen‐Xuan Wang  Van‐Binh Bui  Guang‐Lei Ma  Ya Huang  Yun Zhao  Guo‐Xun Yang  Jin‐Feng Hu

Chloranerectuslactone V, a New Sesquiterpene from Chloranthus erectus Verdc. -  Thu Huong, Tran; Van Thong, Nguyen; Thi Minh, Tran; Huyen Tram, Le; Tuan Anh, Nguyen; Duc Cuong, Ho; Van Cuong, Pham; V. Ca, Diep

Composition of Essential Oils from Chloranthus elatior and Ch. spicatus from Vietnam - Tran Dinh Thang, Do Ngoc Dai, Isiaka A Ogunwande

PHYLOGENY OF CHLORANTHUS (CHLORANTHACEAE) BASED ON NUCLEAR RIBOSOMAL ITS AND  PLASTID TRNL-F SEQUENCE DATA -   HONG-ZHI KONG, ZHI-DUAN CHEN, ANDAN-MING LU

The complete chloroplast genome of medicine and horticultural plant Chloranthus spicatus (Chloranthaceae) - Xing-Yu Liao, Xue-Die Liu, Yu-Ting Jiang and other

Constituents from Chloranthaceae plants and their biological activities - Manli Zhang, Dan Liu, Guiqiang Fan, Ruxing Wang, Xinghua Lu, Yucheng Gu and Qing-Wen Shi