Herbs from Distant Lands

Wednesday, August 31, 2016

Solanum torvum - Pea Aubergine, Susumber, Turkey Berry, Pea Eggplant

PLANT PROFILE

Solanum torvum is a robust bush from solancae family, that produce clusters of berries. These berries are commonly known as Pea Aubergine, Pea Eggplant or Turkey Berry and are used as a vegetable in many tropical countries. It is especially popular nowadays in East Africa and South-East Asia, playing important role in cuisine of Thailand, South India and Ghana and being significant part of local diet as it is a good source of essential minerals and vitamins. The plant is believed to oryginate from Central and South America. But it spread due to vegetable garden cultivation throughout all tropical regions, get naturalized and in many places become even obnoxious weed.
Good nutritious value of Solanum torvum fruits is not it's only value. In many tropical and subtropical countries not only fruits, but also leaves, stems and roots of this plant are used in traditional healing. It become important medicine used by practitioners of Ayurveda, Siddha and Traditional Chinese Medicine systems. It is regarded as very useful herb in treatment of many different infections, liver problems, diabetes, cancer and more. Many scientifical studies had been made in many different countries, to indentify chemical constituents of this plant and it's pharmacological actions. Most of it was conducted in India (mostly in Tamil Nadu), and some in Ghana, Cameroon, Japan, Bangladesh, Taiwan, China, Indonesia, Thailand and Cuba. One of those studies resoulted in isolation from Solanum torvum tissues a chemical structure called solasonine - which become used as a start product in hemisynthesis of cortisone and steroidal sex hormones for oral contraceptives.
In 1998 in Malaysia a post stamp depicting Solanum torvum has been released, as a part o Medicinal Plants of Malaysia series.
In India there is a very similar species called Solanum indicum, it often shares the same common names with Solanum torvum, and it's berries are consumed and used medicinaly (leaves and roots too) in the same way. The main difference between those two species is that S. torvum have white flowers, while S. indicum flowers are violet.
The other popular english common names for this plant and it's berries, beside those that I've mentioned before, are : Devil's Fig, Cherry Eggplant, Wild Eggplant, Thai Eggplant and Gully Bean.
Here are just some of many other vernacular names of Solanum torvum : Susumber (Jamaica), Melongene-diable, Bellangere Batarde, Aubergine Pois (French), Pokastrauch, Teufels-Nachtschatten (German), Belangera Cimarrona, Terongan (Spanish), Jurubeba (Portugese), Morella della Giamaica (Italian), Suzume Nasubi (Japanese), Dian Qie Ze, Ci Quie, Shan Dan Quie (China), Soni, Katai, Kaisurisuri (Fiji), Sundai (India), Bhurat, Bhankatiya (Hindi), Shveta Brihati (Sanskrit), Marang (Marathi), Kaatuchunta, Anachunda, Malamchunda (Malayalam), Chitra, Kottuvastu (Telugu), Sundaikkai, Karimulli, Mulli (Tamil), Bhi-tita (Assamese) Ban Begun, Gotha Begun (Bangladesh), Byako (Arunachal Pradesh), Thibbatu (Sinhala), Tokrakur (Nepal), Terung Rajah Wang, Terung Belanda, Terung Mangas, Terung Belah, Terung Pipit (Malaysia), Top Na Aka (Cameroon), Kantosi, Ama Dweridi, Anona Ntroba, Kwahu Nsusuwa, Abedrow (Ghana), Igba-yinrin-elugun (Nigeria), Yakandroa (Ivory Coast), Brinjal Pea (South Africa), Prendejera (Cuba), Put Nhorng Deum (Cambodia), Ca Dai Hoa Trang, Ca Hoang, Ca Nong (Vietnam), Kazaw-Kha, Hkawhkam- Kaju (Myanmar), Ma Khuea Phuang, Ma Kae, Makhua Phuong (Thailand), Kheengz Faaz (Laos), Shu Qie Zi (Singapore),Takokak, Cepoka, Pokak, Terongan (Indonesia), Guis (Guatemala), Tandang-aso, Talampay, Talongon, Dagutung, Gambol (Philippines).
Solanum torvum have also many botanical synonymes like : Solanum longiflorum, Solanum indicum, Solanum mayanum, Solanum stramonifolium, Solanum daturifolium, Solanum acanthifolium, but none of them or others are used nowadays.

Here is my video about Solanum torvum - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d2XSvFRVrA0

CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING

Solanum torvum is a perennial bush that grows naturally in tropical and subtropical climate regions, at elevations from sea level up to around 2000m. It can reach around 4m of height and spread around 3m wide. It usually have prickles on stems and midrib of leaves, but in there are also thornless cultivars. Leaves are 10-20cm long, and their surface is velvety, just like it's young stems too. Fruits have 1-1,5cm in diameter, with structure of a berry, and is yellowish when ripe but quickly turn brown. Solanum torvum like moist, acidic, fertile soils, but can grow also on pore and dry lands. It can withstand well heavy seasonal droughts and also slight frost. It like sunny or slightly shaded areas.
This plant can easily become invasive weed, as it is spreading fast from seeds, esspecialy in disturbed soils, near roads, etc. It can regrow from the root after fire. It's seeds require sunlight for germination. Cuttings are better for propagation of S. torvum, due to preservation of characteristic features and phytochemicals content (which is very important when planted for consumption and medicinal use of Pea Aubergine, as toxic strains and hybrids of this plant with related species are reported to cause poisoning).
It sometimes may suffer from diseases and pests affecting other solancae crops plants, like Early Blight (Alternaria solani ) and Eggplant Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. melongenae), the Rust (Aecidium habunguense) and aphids, leucinodes, leaf hoppers and caterpilars. Solanum torvum is used in intercropping cultivation to control bacterial and fungal diseases of S. melongena in Indonesia. It is sometimes also used as a rootstock for tomatoes and aubergines, where it conveys resistance to bacterial wilt and nematodes.
In tropical climate Pea Aubergine flowers and produces fruits all year round. The fruits can be consumed fresh or dried, and are picked when unripe but fully developed (green, not very hard and not smaller than 1cm). It is gathered by cutting off the whole clusters, and sold in the in such a form, which make them keep fresh for longer time. Make sure you have a sharp tool, as fruits cluster stem is tough and will not brake easily from its branch. Leaves, whole stems or roots, can be gathered at any time for medicinal purposes, and used fresh or dried in shade.

CULINARY USES

Pea Aubergine fruits are important ingredient in Thai, South Indian and Ghanian cuisine, appreciaten not only for it's flavour and texture, but also it's for nutritious and medicinal value. It is used unripe, usually fresh, but also in dried form. It have a bitter taste but with a bit of sweet note, some cultivated varieties are less bitter. It is cooked in soups, sauces, stir-fried, braised, grilled, baked, pickled, turned into chutney, or just munched raw as an appetizer.
I get to know this vegetable a few years ago, when I found it in food shop specialized in asian and african food, in Milton Keynes, England. It was the most expensive vegetable aviable there, and never I saw it again neither in Britain nor anywhere else in Europe. The owner of the shop wasn't able to give me any informations about how to use it. But his customer, woman born in Ghana, have told me that Pea Aubergine tastes bitter, and they usually chop it and add to stews in moderate amounts.
The whole fruits are commonly added to spicy Thai curries, and pounded added to sauces to balance the spiciness. In Sri Lanka dried fruits are fried with spices , grounded into powder and added to rice. In Tamil Nadu, India, the fruits soaked in curd are dried and later fried in oil, such a product is called Sundaikkai Vattral and it is avaiable in Tamil supermarkets.
Solanum torvum leaves and fruits decoctions have many health benefits. But when I first made it to use as a rinse to combat tootchache caused by gum infection, I was really suprised how good it tastes. As I had expected it to be just like many other of those healthy but unpalatable bitter drinks. Who knows, maybe it was not strong enough (two leaves and two clusters of berries, fresh and chopped, shortly boiled in two teacups of water, it helped with the pain and inflammation anyway), but thanks to that I've discovered another decoction that matches my taste as a beverage tea, and is truly a good tonic. Leaves and flowers of Solanum torvum are used to made syrup taken as a treatment for colds.
Make sure you have your Solanum torvum fruits from reliable source. If you had gathered it yourself, from wild growing plants that noone particularly recomeded to be fully safe. Than you have to be extremly carefull with trying it. As there are strains of this plant, that bears toxic fruits that looks just like the edible ones.

COSMETIC USES

In one blog I have read an information, that fruits and leaves of Solanum torvum are eaten as a salad or cooked in curry, to enlarge breasts. The author Nancy Chan, have claimed to read this on the plant information display at Malaysian Herbal Garden - Taman Herba Negeri Perak. I haven't found any other source to mention this particular use, but in Ghana and Nigeria, women eat Pea Abergine fruits to induce and improve lactation.

MEDICINAL USES

Solanum torvum fruits, and also leaves and roots have been used as a medicine for a long time, by many different cultures that it was brought to threw cultivation, from Central or South America. It is used in Ayurveda, Siddha (traditionan system of medicine in Sri Lanka) and Traditional Chinese Medicine, in the same way as very similar species - Solanum indicum, which is native to India and have been used in the region as a cure since ancient times. In many tropical countries, Solanum torvum is becoming nowadays less of a folk medicine, and more of an official herbal drug. Many modern scientifical tests, have proved it's effectivnes in treatment of particular diseases. And fitochemical studies resoulted in recognition of it's many chemical constituents. One the chemicals isolated from S. torvum tissues is solasonine - which is used as a start product in hemisynthesis of cortisone and steroida sex hormones for oral contraceptives. Fruits, leaves, stems or whole aerial parts and roots, are often mentioned to share the same medicinal uses, used both fresh or dried. Nonetheless I've decided to keep seperate the informations about medicinal aplications of particular parts of the plant.

FRUITS

Fruits of Solanum torvum are very nutritious, containing important vitamins and minerals that improve body functions. 100g of fruits provide 47cal. Pea Aubergine possess a very high moisture content (80-86%), it contain carbohydrates 7.03%, proteins 2.32%, fats 0.27%, ash 0.14% and crude fiber 3.99%. It is rich in essential metals like iron 76mg/kg, manganese 19mg/kg, copper 2.6mg/kg and zinc 21mg/kg. It also have a lots of vitamin C (2.686 mg/100g), B-complex (Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin), vitamin A (0.078mg/100g), vitamin E and calcium 221mg/kg.
The fruits contains bioactive organic compounds : sitosterol D-glucoside, carpesterol, glycoalcaloids (solamargine, up to 1% solasonine), phenols (phenol 2,3,5 trimethyl), flavonoids, isoflavonoids (torvanol A), isoflavonoid sulfate, steroidal glycosides (torvosides), jurubine, saponins, terpenoids, tannins, methyl caffeate, chlorogenone and stigmasterol (in seeds).
Just like with many other of edible and medicinal Solanaceae species, it is important to be very carefull with Solanum torvum, if you are not 100% sure if its safe. There are hundreds of Solanum species, many of which looks very similar and easily crosspolinate creating hybrids, also mutations happens that may create a toxic strain. Chemical composition of those plants also vary due to environment, soil, weather, polutions etc. There had been recorded cases of poisoning with fruits that looked just like regular Solanum torvum berries, but later tests showed unusual toxic elements in it. Some of reported cases patients had substantial neurological disfunctions like : dizziness, slurred speach, facial paralysis, ataxia, weakness, also hypertension, confusion, gastrointestinal distress. Couple of cases was severe and required intensive care admission, with respiratory failure, requiring emergency ventilation. Therefore it is best to use only S. torvum from reliable supply and grow plants only propagated threw cuttings (for its oryginal genes preservation). But if you want to check yourself unknown Pea Aubergine-lookalike wild plant, be extremly cautious.

Solanum torvum fruits acts as : anti-inflammatory (properties comparable to hydrocortisone), antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-diarrhoeal, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, nefroprotective, cardioprotective, diuretic (as compared to standard drug Furosemide), sedative, analgesic, tonic, haematopoietic and erythropoietic (support new blood cells formation), anticancer, immunomodulatory (regulate immune system activity), carminative and vermifuge. Water fruit-coat extracts shower antibacterial activity comparable to commercial antibiotics - Chloramphenicol and Streptomycin. Seed extracts of S. torvum have showned interesting antidepresant potential. The fruit is also said to strenght nervous system and improve memory.
Pea Aubergine fruits are used, eaten fresh, dried or cooked, and also it's decoctions are drunk for treatment of diseases like : liver and spleen enlargment, cold, cough, bronchial asthma, fever (it is said to increase white blood cells number during fever), malaria, stomachache, diarrhoea, microbial infections (like Candida albians, Streptococcus faecalis and herpes simplex virus type 1), intestinal worms, leucorrhoea, arterial hypertension, for headache and other pains relief, insomnia, rheumatism, leucoderma, and also used as poison antidote.

Solanum torvum fruit is widely used in Indonesia as cure for prostate disorders (fresh unripe fruits are eaten every day). Water extracts of fruits and roots of Solanum torvum have proved to be very effective against breast cancer. In Sierra Leone fruit decoction is given as a cough medicine for children. Fried fruit is also taken for cough. In India Pea Aubergine fruit is used to improve eyesight and consuming fruits is belived to cure paralysis. In Indonesia the berries are mashed together with the leaves of Curcuma domestica (Turmeric) and applied to the eyes to treat trachoma. Nepalese use S. torvum flower juice with salt water as an eye drops. In Cameroon, fruit juice is used to treat skin infections like abscesses, jigger (parasite) wounds, ringworm, athlete's foot, and also skin problems in animals. The fruit juice is also applied locally to ease the irritation of ant bites. Fruit juice or decoction is used as gargle fo mouth ulcers. In Arunachal Pradesh in India crushed fruits are aplied to gums to get relief from gum infection and toothache. In Ghana unripe fruits and leaves of Solanum torvum are used against tuberculosis, fruits are also eaten to stop palpitations. In Sri Lanka powdered fruits are drunk in water daily as a treatment for groins infection, for controling blood sugar fruits are eaten for 4 days in a week, fruits are also eaten raw for strenghtening bones. The fruit ripe or unripe is said to have strenghtening, tonic effect and help increase the amount of blood in the human body, that is particulary uesful in post-partum and anemia. Solanum torvum fruits increase milk secretion, and are part of the diet of women after childbirth.

LEAVES

Solanum torvum leaves are rich in essential minerals, iron, magnesium, zinc, sodium, potassium, vitamins B6, B12 and C. It contain glycoalkaloids (0.0039%), derived from solasodine, solasonine (0.0043%) and solamargine (0.0028%), alkaloids, sterols (sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol and steroids, glycosides, flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, kaempferol), isoflavonoids (isoquercetin, torvanol A), tannins, saponins, aminoacids, 2- Hexadecen-OL,3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl, 9,12,15 octadecatrieonic acid, tetratriacontanic acid, triacontanol, elemene, steroidal lactone saponins, spirostanol glycosides, henriacontane, neochlorogenin, neosolaspigein and solaspigenine.

Leaves of S. torvum have following actions : antihypertensive, haemostatic, anti-platelet aggregation, cardiovascular, sedative, digestive, antioxidant, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, larvicidal, hepatoprotective, anti-ulcer, antibacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anticancer, anticonvulsant and antispasmodic.
The leaves are usually consumed in form of decoction or infusion, but alcoholic tinctures are also made, to treat conditions like : colds, coughs, asthma, fever, malaria, rheumatism, epileptic seizure, liver and spleen enlargment, gonorrhoea, thrush, gastralgia, gastric ulceration, dropsy, prostate disorders, wound infection, arterial hypertension, blood stasis, leukoderma, to improve lactation and convalescence, and are also used as a mouthwash for mouth ulcers or tooth decay,
Externaly leaf decoctions are used as a wash and for compress, on sores, pimples, scabies, bleedings, wounds, burns and rashes. Cubans apply the leaf juice on pimples. Pounded fresh leaves of S. torvum are also used as a poultice, aplied on cuts, wounds and injuries, and dried, powdered leaves are used as a styptic to stoop bleeding. Decoctions of leaves can be also used to bathe the body to cool the sore and itching. In Santa Lucia fresh leaves are rubbed on the foot to treat athlete's foot. Haitians massage crushed leaves and seeds to correct fever.

In Papua New Guinea, juice is extracted from fire-heated leaves, then diluted with water and drunk for headaches and malaria. In Ghana a cupful of decoction from roots and leaves of Solanum torvum is drunk before meals for treatment of malaria. In India the leaf juice is used to reduce body heat, dried leaf powder is taken as a medicine for diabetes, leaf paste is used to bath a newborn baby in order to protect it from infections. Leaves and flowers of Solanum torvum are used to made syrup taken as a treatment for colds.
In Ivory Coast, Anyi-Ndenye women use Solanum torvum leaves during 2-3 trimester (4-9 month) of pregnancy, in form of '' therapeutic meal ''. Although it is also noted to be used traditionaly as a abortifacient in South India - '' 3-5ml leaf extract is given orally for 5 days ''. Other scientific document, from Medical College in Tamil Nadu, states that S. torvum leaves are traditionally known to be useful for '' recuperation and rejuvenation during pregnancy ''. In India roots of closely related Solanum indicum are used to treat infertility in women. As these are the only informations aviable, about safety of use of this herb during pregnancy. You might assume that Solanum torvum leaves are only harmful at early stage of pregnancy (first trimester), but it is better to be cautious with it.

ROOTS

There is not much research on chemical composition of Solanum torvum roots, but steroidal glycosides (astorvosides A-G) and jurubine have been isolated.
The roots are reported to act as anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor. And it is used usually in for of decoction for stomachache, indigestion, amenorrhea, rheumatism, cystitis, veneral diseases (gonorrhea, urethritis), tuberculosis and malaria. And externally applied on sores, wounds, bleeding, burns and rashes.
In the Philippines Solanum torvum roots decoctions are drunk as an antidote for poisoning, and are given to women after childbirth to prevent blood loss. In Malaysia pounded roots are aplied to heal cracks in the feet. In Indonesia, a tincture made from chopped root steeped in rice alcohol for two weeks, is taken nightly (mostly by slender young women) to promote weight gain. In Bangladesh, combination of S. torvum root and leaf juice is used for treatment of asthma, diabetes and hypertension. In Brasil root juice is used for treatment of liver diseases, tuberculosis and as a anti-anemic. Nepalese use root juice to stop vomiting due to weakness. The pounded root is inserted into the cavity of a decayed tooth to relieve toothache. In Tripura region in India, ashes of dried roots are applied locally for curing condyloma. Solanum torvum root (300 ug/ml) strongly inhibited the melanin production of B16 melanoma cells without significant cytotoxity.

Sources

'' Medicinal Plants in Australia, volume 4 An Antipodean Apothecary '' - Cheryll Williams, Rosenberg Publishing 2013
'' The West Indian Medical Journal, volume 3 '' - University of the West Indies 1954
'' Vegetables '' - G. J. H. Grubben, PROTA 2004
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'' Ejim volume 1''- Maarten Bode, Jan Em Houben, Jan Meulenbeld, Barkhuis 2008
'' Handbook of African Medicinal Plants, second edition '' - Maurice M. Iwu, CRC Press 1993
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'' Indian Herbal Remedies '' - C. P. Khare, Springer Science & Business Media 2004
'' Outlines and Pictures of Medicinal Plants from Nigeria '' - Tolu Odugbemi, Tolu Odugbemi 2008
PHYTOCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT SOLVENT EXTRACTS OF A TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL PLANT - Umera Begam A. K. and Senthil Kumar R, Department of Biochemistry, Holy Cross College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. Department of Biochemistry, Rajah Serfoji Government College, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
''A Preliminary Study of Ethnobotanical Use of Plant Species by the Q'eqchi' Maya Community in Toledo District'' - A Thesis Submitted to the University of Belize in Fulfillment of RSCH 4992 - Independent Research As Part of Bachelors of Science in Biology Submitted by Mr. Pedro Choco Under the Supervision of Dr. Thippi Thiagarajan
'' Nutritional and Mineral Composition of the Fruits of Solanum torvum from Ghana'' - Osei Akoto, Lawrence Sheringham Borquaye, Ama Samba Howard, Niib Konwuruk Department of Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
PHARMACOGNOSTIC AND PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILE OF THE LEAVES OF SOLANUM TORVUM SWARTZ (SOLANACEAE) - THE ASSESMENT OF ITS QUALITY Dr. K. Periyanayagam, Gokila S and K. G. Balasubramaniam Prof. & HOD Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Madurai Medical College, Madurai-20, Tamilnadu, India.
'' Therapeutic potency of Solanum torvum Swartz on bening prostatic hyperplasia tretment : A review'' - Jason M. Peranginangin, Andreanus A. Soemardji, Ketut Adnyana I, Diah Dhianawaty D
'' Protective effect of Solanum torvum on Doxorubicin- induced hepatotoxicity in rats '' - Mahalaxmi Mohan, Sarika Kamble, J.Satyanarayana, M.Nageshwar, Niranjan Reddy

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Sunday, July 31, 2016

Elephantopus scaber, Elephantopus mollis Elephantopus tomentosus - Elephantsfoot

Polska wersja

PLANT PROFILE

Elephantopus scaber is a small, perennial flowering plant from asteraceae family that is considered to be panatropical. It can be found as a common weed in South Asia and Southeast Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to the Philippines and Indonesia, it is also said to grow wild in Australia, Tropical Africa and also South America. It's close, and very similar relative Elephantopus tomentosus is said to be native to North America, but can be found as a weed in many different tropical regions of the world, and it is generally considered to be the same species with Elephantopus mollis. Because of the the fact that names E. scaber, E. tomentosus and E. mollis are often attached to the plants with the same features, they can be all considered as a synonyms. All the plants, that have been ever put under any of those three names by any respectfull researchers, are showing close resemblance. And even if you dig deeper to try to distinguish those plants and seperate them as those three different species, you will get a headache from reading contraindicting descriptions from different authorities. Plus possibilities of hybridisation, and uotlook characteriscics fluctuations due to differences in environments are significant in those plants. So even though E. scaber is generally described to grow smaller and have more rough leaf surface, from more robust E. tomentosus/mollis with softer, more hairy leaves. Scaber in fertile, humid soil will grow bigger than tomentosus/mollis in dry sandy land, and their leaves will change a lot too (but personally I think that the main key to distinct two types should be leaf shape comparison, as its shape differ a bit). But the good thing is that you don't need to care much about their botanical clasification. Because these three species mentoned here, have been used to cure the same diseases wherever it was found. And resoults of scientific tests are showing that they all share the same bioactive constituents and pharmacological actions.
Elephantopus scaber is the most popular name for these plants, used for translations of many ancient names given to it by many different cultures. It have been recorded as a herbal medicine a centuries ago in China, India, Sri Lanka and many other countries. And many countries (mostly from Southeast Asia) have its contributions to modern scientific research on medicinal properties of this herb, which started in 1970s. Authors of one of those studies, from Burdwan University, West Bengal, India, stated that '' E. scaber is one of such plants which have tremendous reputation in indigenous traditional system of medicine in India, by virtue of which it has drawn the attention and concern of scientists for exploration of its medicinal properties through phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation.'' That is why it have nowadays well proved, effectivenes in treatment of cancer, microbial infections, liver ailments and in wound healing, to name just few.
The most common name in english for Elephantopus scaber is Elephant's Foot, but often it is called more precisely Prickly-leaves Elephant's Foot or Rough-leaved Elephant's Foot. Which is for distinction from Elephantopus tomentosus and Elephantopus mollis that are called Woolly-leaved Elephant's Foot, Hairy Elephant's Foot or Soft Elephant's Foot. E. tomentosus/mollis can be also found under names of Wild Tabacco, False Tabacco or Tabbaco Weed (smoke of it's burning leaves is said to keep bad spirits away from the house) or Wood Mullein.
Here are just some of many other vernacular names of this plant in many other languages : Katoopin (Burmese), Ku Di Dan, Di Dan Cao (Chinese), Pied d'elephant, Lastron Marron (French), Elefanten Fuss (German), Gojihiva, Kharaparnini, Prastarini (Sanskrit), Gobhi, Samduri, Ban-tambakhu, Adhomukha (Hindi), Galjimi (Gujarati), Gojiho, Sahasra Buti (Nepalese), Gojilata, Shamdulum (Bengal), Hastipata, Pathari (Marathi), Anashavadi, Anashovah (Tamil), Mayurachula (Orija), Ethadi, Ath adi (Sinhalese), Teng Khia (in Taiwan), Hustikasaka, Eddupattu (Telugu), Hakkarika, Nayi Nalige (Kannada), Anayatiyan, Aanacchuvati (Malayalam), Gojia lota, Hasti pada, Shamdalan, Gejiashak (in Bangladesh), Dila Dila, Tabatabkohan - E. scaber, Malatabako - E. tomentosus (Tagalog), Kabkabron (Iloko), Tutup Bumi - E. scaber, Litup Bumi - E. tomentosus, Bersih Hitam, Tapak Sulaiman, Tapak Babi, Tapak Lemak (Malaysia), Pepalut (Sabah), Tapak Liman, Talpak Tana (Indonesian), Ya kai nok kum, Domai ru lom (Thailand), Co luoi meo (Vietnam), Khii Fai Nok Khoum (Laos), Tawmonlar, Womis Kwintu - E. mollis (Surinam), Erva de Colegio, Suacacaa, Fumo de Mata - all those three are used specificly for E. mollis in Brasil, Shirobanaigakozorina - E. mollis in Japan.

CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING

Elephantopus scaber is a perennial but short living flowering plant. It is growing wild in many tropical and subtropical regions, at alevations up to around 1500m altitude. It creates rosettes of hairy leaves (from 10 up to around 30cm long) just above the ground, that lay flat, or are more upright if the plant is growing in shade. From those rosettes a flowering stems are rising in summer, often with some leaves on it. The stems are usually shorter than 60cm when it grows under strong sunlight, on open fields, in dry soils and even semi arid conditions. But the plant can be also often found in forests, under strong shade, or wet meadows with rich soil, and in such environment flowering stems are usually (except young plants) more branched and reach even around 1,5m height. Though as I mentioned above, many botanists recognize most of those more robust plants with bigger, softer and more hairy leaves as a different species, called Elephantopus tomentosus or Elephantopus mollis. Some are also saying that E. scaber have always fiolet frowers, and all those similar looking Elephantopus plants with white or pinkish flowers, should be labeld as E. tomentosus or E. mollis.
Elephant's Foot can be easily propagated by seeds, and since both it's roots, leaves and flowers are considered to be a valuable herbal material, the whole plant can be harvested by uprooting during flowering, for drying purposes. But if you don't have seeds gathered, don't want to get rid of your old plants, or just want to use this herb as fresh, you can just pick leaves whenever needed or frowers when it appeares. But remember that the less leaves you will leave on the individual plant, the longer you will need to wait for new ones to grow on it, as you are weakening plant sunlight absorption capacity.
Elephantopus scaber leaf extract was found to be toxic against pests like Red Flour Beetle (Tribolium castaneum), Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus cingulatus) and Maize Weevil (Sitophilus zeamais), therefore it can be used as a natural pesticide against those bugs, and the plant is worth further investigation for its anti-pest potential.

CULINARY USES

Young bitter leaves of Elephantopus scaber are cooked like spinach or added to salads that are eaten for better health in China. In Malaysia fresh or dried leaves are used to boil in soups. In China leaves and roots are boiled in pork stew, which is eaten every day for 4-5 days, to cure jaundice. In India crushed leaves are mixed with salt and taken with curd for dysentery. Fresh leaves are ingredient in Lei Cha - traditional Hakka herbal dish.

COSMETIC USES

In Siddha medicine (traditional system of medicine in Sri Lanka) the leaves of Elephantopus scaber are used as a thaali (tied around the head) for hair in case of hairfall. In the Philippines juice of pounded leaves is applied on scalp to slow down hair loss. Resoults of Indian studies indicated that hair oil formulation of methanolic extract of Elephantopus scaber rendered significant hair growth promotive effect.
In Indonesia Elephantopus scaber is used in powders for firming the breasts. This herb is also used in many different countries in form of plant decoction wash, fresh pounded roots or leaves poultice, for many different skin infections. It have antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound healing properties, which makes it a potentially very good herbal skin care creams ingredient.
There is a patented skin whitening agent for external aplication, containing a solvent extract of Elephantopus mollis, which is claimed to have '' a superior effect in lightening and whitening pigmentation after suntans, senile lentigo, freckles, melasma and so forth.'' Resoults of Japanese studies indicated that Elephantopus mollis extract is a usefull depigmanting (regulating melanogenesis), skin-whitening agent.

MEDICINAL USES

Elephant's Foot is a herb that is highly esteemed wherever it can be found. It plays importand role in traditional medicine in many of tropical and subtropical regions around the world. It is usually gathered from wild, as it is quite abundant weed (and sometimes even consedered invasive) in most of the places of it's appearance. Dried leaves, roots or whole plants can be found on asian markets, as well as dry or liquid extracts, pills or capsules made from herb of Elephantopus scaber. Elephant's Foot is also a important ingredient in many herbal preparations sold in Asia, but it is hard to find any on the global market.
Elephantopus scaber is the name that can be in found in hundreds of reports about traditional herbalism, as well as in dozens of documents that are records of modern farmakological studies, both of which comes from many countries from different continents. Elephantopus tomentosus and Elephantopus mollis seems to be less famous on international scale, but those names also appeares in many texts about it's reported traditional uses and scientific medicine research resoults. There is well enough sources to see clearly that both traditional claims and fitochemical reports of plants puted under the names of E. tomentosus and E. mollis are no different to those of plants labeled as E. scaber (which name as I mentioned above is often used as a synonym for E. tomentosus/mollis or simply mixed with those more robust genotypes).
Elephantopus scaber contains : germacranolide sesquiterpene lactones (elephantopin, deoxyelephantopin, isodeoxyelephantopin, germacranolide), molephantin, molephantinin, phantomolin, elephantin, alpha-curcumene, beta-amyrin, epifriedelinol, ethyl hexadecanoate, stigmasterol, stigmasteryl, scabertopin, lupeol, dicaffeoyl quinic acids, urosolic acids, stearic acid, fatty acid esters, crepiside E, triterpenes, flavonoids, flavonoid esters, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, quinones, aurones, chalcones and essential oil 0.05% v/w (hexadecanoic acid (42.3%), isopropyl dimethyl tetrahydronaphthalenol (14.1%), beta-sesquiphellandrene (8.3%), octadecadienoic acid (5.5%), phytol (5.2%) and also copaene isopropyl dimethyl hexahydronaphthalene, cyclosativene).
Elephant's Foot herb is described in Traditional Chinese Medicine system as bitter, acrid and cold, detoxyficating, disinhibiting dampness, clearing heat and cooling blood. In terms used in Western Herbalism it's medicinal actions are described as : anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, liver tonic, nefroprotective, chemoprotective, alterative, vulnerary, antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial (effective against both gram positive and gram negative strains), antiprotozal, antitripanasomal, antimalarial, antifungal, anthelmintic, cardiovascular, cardiac tonic, astringent, febrifuge, diuretic, emollient, emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiasthmatic (antihistaminic, anticholinergic and mast cell stabilizing), bechic, analgesic, antidiabetic, hypoglycemic, anticancer (cytotoxic, antineoplastic, antimetastatic), antidiarrhoeal (but laxative in stronger doses), antiemetic, galactogogue, antiplatelet - anti-coagulant, diaphoretic, antiulcer, bone regenerative, antimutagenic and aphrodisiac. Effects of one study on aged rats suggest that ethanolic extract of Elephantopus scaber leaves have memory enhance activity.
Elephant's Foot leaves, roots, flowers or whole plants, are used fresh or dried to prepare decoctions, infusions or pills that are consumed as a remedy for wide range of ailments like :

- digestive problems and infections like diarrhoea, dysentery, amoebic dysentery, gastroenteritis, enteritis, sprue, flatulence, loss of apetite, indigestion, constipation, and to stop vomiting.

- mouth and throat infections like sore throat, cough, cold, influenza, pharyngitis, rhinitis, tonsillitis and mouth ulcers. Decoctions are used to protect teeth as a mouthwash. In India the roots of Elephantopus scaber are powdered with pepper and applied to toothache, the root is also used as a tooth brush. Elephantopus mollis extract is an ingredient of dental cream for strengthening and protecting tooth surface (Swissdent Biocare Toothcream).

- lung infections and dysfunctions like respiratory syncytial virus RSV, bronchitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis

- many other kinds of bacterial, viral and fungal infections like skin diseases (boils, scabies, smallpox, fungal skin diseases), conjuctivitis, veneral diseases (gonorrhea, syphilis), fevers (including puerperal fever and fever in children - small pills are made from the root paste and given to suckling children suffering from fever.), also plasmodial infections like malaria and filariasis (round worms). Malays use this herb to treat worm infestation in children. Water extract of Elephantopus scaber's leaves and root, showed potent HIV-1 RT inhibitory action (96.93 % inhibition ratio).

- liver complains like hepatitis, jaundice, hepatopathy, cirrhosis and alcohol induced liver damage

- kidney and urinary tract infections and disorders like kidney and bladder stones, nephritis, dysuria (painful urination), anuria (nonpassage of urine)

- for treatment of many form of cancer - liver, lung, breast, pancreatic, cervical, colorectal, sarcomas, skin papillomas, prostate, nasopharyngeal and leukemia.

- as a cure for menstrual disorders, irregular menses, vaginal discharges, blennorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ametrorrhagia, menorrhagia, dysmenorrhoea, and menstrual derangements due to colds

- inflammatory conditions like arthritis, arthralgia due to wounding, rheumatism and hemorrhoids. In Nigeria Elephantopus mollis is used to treat inflammations of the uterus and ovaries,

- used for increasing urination in water retention related diseases like dropsy and anuria

- in treatment of diabetes, it reduce elevated blood glucose level and normalise insulin level

- used for supporting and speeding up wounds and bone fractures healing processes

- for pain relief in headaches, chest pains

- as a antidote for snake bite and spider bite

- it is also consumed to treat : anemia, beri-beri, goitre, encephalitis B, insomnia and as braintonic
Root decoctions are taken for heart diseases and as a cardiotonic. Root juice (2 teaspoons three times per day) has been consumed to overcome heart and liver troubles. Fresh roots are chewed to treat cough, cold and headache.

Decoctions and infusions of all parts of Elephant's Foot plant, are also used externally for skin wash, and fresh leaves and roots are smashed and applied as a poultice, to treat :

- cuts, wounds and bruises, it works as a desinfecant and speed up healing process, for this purpose also powderized leaves and roots are applied

- skin infections like chicken pox, erysipelas, abscesses, filariasis, measles and eczema

- inflammations of skin and ulcers.. Bruised leaves boiled in coconut oil are applied on ulcers, eczema and gout affected parts of body.

- used for baths as syphilis treatment (Elephant's Foot tea is drunk in the same time)

- root paste has been used externally as anti-venom. The root is ground and massage from the snake bite place toward down. In Sri Lanka Elephantopus tomentosus is used for cobra and viper bites.

- plant paste is used for menorrhagia and tetanus

- root paste is aplied as poultice for pneumonia, it is also known to be useful through external application in reducing fever

- for abdominal pains poultice of the plant is applied externaly, pasted root is applied on forehead to relieve headache,

Kani tribes in Kerala, South India use E. scaber as a remedy for blood clotting and circulatory system problems. Hakka people in Malaysia drink juice squeezed from fresh leaves of E. scaber or tea from dried or fresh leaves with dates, as a remedy for heat stroke.
In her book '' Jamu, the Ancient Indonesian Art of Healing '', Susan-Jane Beers wrote that '' The root of tapak liman (Elephantopus scaber; prickly-leaved elephant's foot) is a remedy for boils, while chemical components in the leaves are useful for treating chronic diarrhoea and fever. However, it is better known as an aphrodisiac and is used in powders for firming the breasts, which allows it to fall into both medical and beauty treatment categories.'' In India and Bangladesh flowers of Elephantopus scaber are particularly valued as a tonic and aphrodisiac, but the whole herb is also mentioned to posses that quality. E. scaber is one of the ingredients in Thai herbal capsules Kmalg Chgag Sar for enhancing male sexual potency and treatment of infertility in men. Fresh root of this plant is employed for treating spermatorrhea.

In the past this herb was used frequently by Malayan midwives as oxytocic uterotonic and myometrial contraction stimulant. Decoctions are used to promote contraction of the uterus after delivery, as an aid to hasten the delivery of placenta, and to prevent post-partum haemorrhage, inflammations and puerperal infections. In Tamil Nadu, India, roots of E. scaber are used to induce abortion. Elephantopus scaber should not be used during pregnancy, and for safety should be only given at low concentration to children.

All those photos that I had put above, are of the plants that I would listed as Elephantopus tomentosus/mollis type, while under I put images of those plants that I consider to be oryginal Elephantopus scaber type.

PSEUDOELEPHANTOPUS SPICATUS - Dog's Tongue, False Elephant's Foot, Iron Weed

This plant is closely related to Elephantopus scaber and tomentosa. Although its flower stalk has different structure, and its leaves has smooth surface and look much different too. Pseudoelephantopus spicatus taste the same, has the same medicinal properties and is traditionally used in the same way as E. scaber and tomentosa. It can be found in tropical parts of America, India, Southern China and South-East Asia.